{"id":8874,"date":"2017-03-12T10:30:46","date_gmt":"2017-03-12T09:30:46","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/legrandcontinent.eu\/?p=8874"},"modified":"2019-10-19T04:41:20","modified_gmt":"2019-10-19T02:41:20","slug":"shakespeare-in-china","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/legrandcontinent.eu\/fr\/2017\/03\/12\/shakespeare-in-china\/","title":{"rendered":"Shakespeare in China"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

Shakespeare or Sha-Shi-biya \u838e\u58eb\u6bd4\u4e9e is having a Renaissance in China. His Stratford-upon-Avon home is being rebuilt in the Jiangxi province<\/a> in San Weng (\u2018Three Masters\u2019) alongside those of Cervantes and Tang Xianzu, the government styled \u2018Shakespeare of the East\u2019<\/a>. Xi Jinping, on his 2015 state visit to the United Kingdom received Shakespeare\u2019s sonnets from the Queen and quoted The Tempest in Parliament<\/a>, promising \u2018what\u2019s past\u2019 to be ‘prologue\u2019. Earlier that year, the British government put \u00a31.5million<\/a> into the Royal Shakespeare Company translating Shakespeare\u2019s Complete Works into Mandarin. What is behind Shakespeare’s role in British-Sino relations ?<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Washington D.C\u2019s Folger Library has tacitly answered<\/a> that China\u2019s emphasis on its relationship with Shakespeare \u2018could be viewed as a marketing decision by the Chinese government, in an attempt to exert China\u2019s \u2018soft power\u2019 in the world.\u2019 The Economist has taken the same line<\/a>, pointing to the events across 2017 celebrating the relationship between Tang Xianzu and Shakespeare \u2013 including a themed exhibition that traveled across 20 countries and a debut musical mash-up of Coriolanus and Tang Xianzu\u2019s Du Liniang (on in London, Paris, and Frankfurt). However, both articles have taken for granted why China has chosen Shakespeare to exert its own soft power.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Despite Cervantes being part of the development in San Weng, China\u2019s Tang Xianzu is not called the \u2018Cervantes of the East\u2019, or, for that matter the Racine. Tang is distinctly placed in the English frame of reference. To put this tool of \u2018cultural exchange\u2019 in perspective (to use one major subheading<\/a> of the China Daily website), we must note that it is not India, Brazil or Russia building a relationship of this scale with Shakespeare, but China \u2013 and that China\u2019s relationship with Shakespeare has emerged from a century of Shakespearean translation, staging and criticism that has had a key role in placing China on both a global and a domestic stage.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Shakespeare in Translation<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

Shakespeare\u2019s first mention in China comes hand in hand with Western imperialism \u2013 with the first known reference being in a translated book of British history that came with the colonizers before the Opium Wars began <\/span>1<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>. He is then kept alive by missionaries and diplomats and reaches his first taste of fame in 1907 when writer Lu Xun \u2013 the man who Mao would go on to call \u2018the sage of modern China\u2019<\/a> \u2013 argues that it is essential for China to have \u2018a Shakespeare-like Chinese writer to give voice to China\u2019s national spirit.\u2019 <\/span>2<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n \n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n <\/picture>\r\n \n
Tian Han\u2019s translation of Hamlet (1922)<\/figcaption>\n <\/a>\n<\/figure>\n\n\n

The first full translation is then funded by the United States. In 1924 they offer China a $12.5million rebate on their war reparations if they agree to spend the shortfall on Chinese education and culture \u2013 a political decision that leads to a Harvard-trained Chinese Professor beginning a project to translate Shakespeare\u2019s Complete Works<\/em> <\/span>3<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>. The translation is published in 1967 and in the meantime Shakespeare\u2019s plays start being staged across China, with Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar<\/em> and, curiously The Merchant of Venice <\/em>(or,<\/em> in its Chinese titles The Woman Attorne<\/em>y, A Pound of Flesh <\/em>or Securing a Loan by Pledging Flesh-Cutting<\/em>) becoming the most popular, with Merchant<\/em> being the first play that is performed. However, by the end of the twentieth century, Shakespeare has become a cultural product that is distinctly Chinese, eventually being used to bolster a vision of dialectical materialism. How this happens requires us to look at the intertwined histories of Shakespeare in translation, performance, and criticism.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

By the end of the twentieth century, Shakespeare has become a cultural product that is distinctly Chinese, eventually being used to bolster a vision of dialectical materialism.<\/p>L.E.<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Chinese Staging<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

It is in the early productions of The Merchant of Venice that we see a distinctly Chinese Shakespeare emerge. Despite the first performances featuring sixteenth and seventeenth-century period costumes, scenery in the style of European Renaissance painting and actors in Western wigs and make up \u2013 a production style that, by the way, remains strong to this day \u2013 the problems that the play explores is not that of religion and prejudice but one of Confucian ethics. The play is seen as a classic conflict between li<\/em> (profit motive) and yi<\/em> (loyalty to friends) <\/span>4<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> \u2013 with Jewish and Christian references being axed and Shylock being characterized by his profession, not his religious identity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This specific Chinese remodeling \u2013 getting Shakespeare to \u2018give voice to China\u2019s national spirit\u2019 \u2013 does not only happen with Merchant<\/em>. It happens with Hamlet<\/em>, seen as a Confucian drama between father and son – recall Confucius\u2019 : \u2018Conduct the funeral of your parents with meticulous care\u2019 (Analects<\/em> I, 9) \u2013 and in regard to Shakespeare\u2019s oeuvre as a whole. In 1936 John C.H. Wu writes an influential piece on Shakespeare and Taoism, arguing that the fundamental idea of Taoism is the interpenetration of opposites and that \u2018this is exactly the vision that Shakespeare saw\u2019. Shakespeare is \u2018so inebriated with this thoroughly Taoist notion\u2019 that he applies it to every dramatic situation to the extent that, for Wu, \u2018the works of Shakespeare can be used as a case-book of Taoism.\u2019 <\/span>5<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

It is from this use of foreign art that Mao can formulate his idea that \u2018we must take over all the fine artistic and literary legacy, critically assimilate from it whatever is beneficial to us.\u2019<\/p>L.E.<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

This is a Shakespeare that is enabled through the support of the West but is being made resolutely Chinese. It is from this use of foreign art that Mao can formulate his idea that \u2018we must take over all the fine artistic and literary legacy, critically assimilate from it whatever is beneficial to us.\u2019 But how do Shakespeare\u2019s English politics make this Chinese assimilation and transition ?<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n \n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n <\/picture>\r\n \n
A scene from Li Liuyi’s production of King Lear (2016)<\/figcaption>\n <\/a>\n<\/figure>\n\n\n

Shakespeare Criticism<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

We see the Chinese approach to Shakespeare\u2019s politics in their tradition of Shakespeare criticism. In the period before the Cultural Revolution, Shakespeare is read in the Marxist-Leninist tradition. In 1944 Yang Hui sets the methodology for this approach : recognize Marx and Engels\u2019 heavy use of Shakespeare, detail Shakespeare\u2019s biography and intellectual moment and relate its politics to China. His \u2018Preface\u2019 to Timon of Athens <\/em>reads : \u2018Timon of Athens<\/em> is the tragedy of Gold. It is Shakespeare\u2019s violent attack on his society, his roar of anger. There is a corresponding situation in [contemporary] China : the old moral order was bankrupt and the new moral order had yet to be established.\u2019 <\/span>6<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Timon of Athens<\/em> for Yang Hui is a play written in response to a society moving from feudalism to capitalism, from the country to the court, from a land-based aristocracy to a mercantile, bureaucratic state. It is a \u2018roar of anger\u2019 because this new world that promises individual emancipation is more destructive than it is progressive.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Yang Hui\u2019s corresponding contemporary situation describes a China that had transitioned political orders at the beginning of the 20th<\/sup> century but was beginning to feel that this new order promised more that it could give. Timon of Athens<\/em> becomes a way to explain that in China in 1944 \u2013 as it was for Gramsci in 1929 \u2013 the old world was dying and the new world was slow to appear.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Here Shakespeare is read to elucidate a contemporary Chinese political situation, is firmly seen from a Marxist-Leninist perspective, and is regarded as a material that exposes global trends \u2013 which were felt in England in the seventeenth century, and in China in 1944. If those trends point to the end of class struggle, by the mid-20th<\/sup> century, China was inevitably closer to this than England. England\u2019s national poet is propelled far from England\u2019s pastures green and towards cementing China\u2019s place at the forefront of a global revolution.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

England\u2019s national poet is propelled far from England\u2019s pastures green and towards cementing China\u2019s place at the forefront of a global revolution.<\/p>L.E.<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Shakespeare in the Cultural Revolution<\/strong><\/h4>\n\n\n\n

But, by January 1964, Liberation<\/em> \u2013 a government-controlled Shanghai paper \u2013 proclaimed that Shakespeare should be ashamed of what he had written. \u2018Anyone who kneels before the shrine of \u2026 Shakespeare or other artists and writers are guilty of favoring moribund capitalism.\u2019 <\/span>7<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n\n\n\n

Shakespeare then follows a standard Cultural Revolution trajectory \u2013 he is removed from libraries and productions of his plays are banned. Shakespeare was culpable for being \u2013 in the words of the \u2018Decision Concerning the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution\u2019<\/a>, declared on the 8th<\/sup> of August 1966 \u2013 one of the bourgeoisie, who despite being overthrown, was still ‘trying to use the old ideas, culture, customs and habits of the exploiting classes to corrupt the masses, capture their minds and endeavor to stage a comeback.’ He was part of ‘the so-called \u2018Western culture\u2019 [which was] nothing but imperialist culture, which is most reactionary, decadent and vicious.’ <\/span>8<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> In his place came eight revolutionary operas with proletarian themes \u2013 including \u2018Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy\u2019 and \u2018the Red Detachment of Women\u2019, both detailing the exploits of the Chinese Red Army.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The 1980s do not so much hail an evolution in Shakespeare’s role in China but a slight amendment to what existed before. The 1983 \u2018Inaugural Observations\u2019 of Shakespeare Studies<\/em> in China \u2013 published in the People\u2019s Daily<\/em> newspaper \u2013 read : \u2018We are reading the world giant Shakespeare from the point of view of a modern China involved in its own recent history\u2026 We attempt to study Shakespeare from a Marxist perspective\u2026 [and] approach Shakespeare\u2019s great soul from many different angles.’ <\/span>9<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Shakespeare is still studied in the Marxist tradition, but this tradition is now declared only to be one of many. Despite the country\u2019s new objectives to move further away from Marxist theory, productions of Shakespeare remain embedded in an older Marxist discourse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Despite the country\u2019s new objectives to move further away from Marxist theory, productions of Shakespeare remain embedded in an older Marxist discourse.<\/p>L.E.<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

Indeed, the first Merchant of Venice<\/em> performed after the Cultural Revolution was defended by the Shakespeare Society of China for being a play that did not intend to offend common sensibilities with its depiction of on-stage kissing \u2013 but to \u2018explore and display Shakespeare\u2019s \u2018profound critique of feudalism\u2019 <\/span>10<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span>. Despite being a Cultural Revolution casualty, Shakespeare becomes a way that \u2013 in a changing China \u2013 an older Marxist revolutionary tradition can reign strong.<\/p>\n\n\n\n\n\n

\n \n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n \r\n <\/picture>\r\n \n
Macbeth (1980), directed by Xu Xiaozhong<\/figcaption>\n <\/a>\n<\/figure>\n\n\n

What does it then mean to emphasize the role of Shakespeare in China today ? This focus on Shakespeare should be seen in tandem with Xi Jinping\u2019s emphasis on where he places himself in Chinese history \u2013 a continuity of early Mao, a rejecter of the years of the Cultural Revolution and a projection of Mao forward into the global 21st<\/sup> century.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

What does it then mean to emphasize the role of Shakespeare in China today ?<\/p>L.E.<\/cite><\/blockquote><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

The focus on Shakespeare should also be seen in tandem with the 2017 Chinese blockbuster Youth<\/em><\/a> <\/em>[Fang Hua<\/em>], subtitled in English and set during the years of the Cultural Revolution. This film reveals a Chinese cultural industry keen to explicitly distance themselves from the Cultural Revolution and do so in a language readable by the West. Shakespeare presents a key means by which this move can be made as a tool of national and international diplomacy in theatres, bookshops, and city construction.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

This use of Shakespeare to distance China from its past and project it into a different future was part of the message of Xi\u2019s fuller proclamation at Parliament in 2015<\/a>, revealing both the desire and the difficulty he faced in trying to get Shakespeare during the Cultural Revolution : \u2018When I was just shy of 16, I left Beijing for a small village in northwestern China to become a peasant for seven years. During that time, I was desperately looking for Shakespeare\u2019s works. I read A Midsummer Night\u2019s Dream<\/em>, The Merchant of Venice<\/em>, Twelfth Night<\/em>, Romeo and Juliet<\/em>, Hamlet<\/em>, Othello<\/em>, King Lear<\/em>, Macbeth<\/em>.\u2019<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1943, Mao quoted Lenin\u2019s idea of literature as \u2018the screw in the whole machine\u2019 arguing that the screw \u2018of course doesn\u2019t compare with other parts in importance, urgency or priority, but\u2026is nevertheless indispensable in the whole machinery.\u2019 <\/span>11<\/sup><\/a><\/span><\/span> Shakespeare \u2013 which in a Chinese legacy means the assertion of a global position, the use of Western funding for Chinese development, the revealing of Chinese culture through a foreign product and the positioning of China at the centre of a global class struggle \u2013 is for Xi Jinping what revolutionary and proletarian literature were for Lenin and for Mao. It is a new screw for a new, global machine.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

Shakespeare, or Sha-Shi-biya \u838e\u58eb\u6bd4\u4e9e is having a Renaissance in China. 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